CIVIL RIGHTS AND THE AFRICAN AMERICAN ARTIST

This essay re-evaluates the Civil Rights Movement from an internal participant perspective. Solo artists Joe Overstreet, Charles Searles, and Ed Wilson Jr., and the creative team of Houston Conwill, Estella Conwill Majozo, and Joseph DePace were invited to participate in this critical, art historical re-reading and re-evaluation of the Civil Rights Movement. This period's impact on African-American art in general and on the artists' individual works in particular are central to this reading. Chosen because of their geographical proximity to the interviewer, the strength of their work, their reputation in the African- American art community, and the diversity of their creativity, these individuals were extensively interviewed regarding their activities during the fifties, sixties, and seventies.

In the course of each interview, an attempt has been made to determine the effects that racism, resistance and protest organization affiliation, and the overall spirit of the black community has had on their works. Their responses provide a distinctive perspective and individualized evaluation of this vital era in African-American history. Charles Searles, for example, was an active member of the Nation of Islam during the sixties. His individual transformation as a result of this personal affiliation with this organization has resulted in a unique re-reading of history as he lived it, and inspired a positive, Afrocentric theme within his works. Similar transformatory experiences have been noted with the other artists.

Other issues examined by this study include a critical evaluation of what the artists considered to be major motivating factors within the black community during the 1950's and sixties; the effects of the Civil Rights Movement; and most importantly, the political and social success of the Movement. White American historians have usually insisted that this social revolution ended with the removal of all barriers that had once restricted the black population. However, an investigation into the position of black artists in the mainstream art world, namely in galleries, museums, and national exhibitions, illustrates that racism continues in the United States, and the issues of the Civil Rights Movement remain pertinent.

This project's use of artists for the interpretation of the Civil Rights Movement is significant since they are often sensitively attuned to the dynamics of new social developments. As perceptive individuals, they can provide illuminating information about the era from a unique, internally situated perspective of social observers and active participants. These views can then be used to evaluate and correct the conventionally documented successes of the Civil Rights Movement.

The thesis begins with a description and critical review of the standard historical view of the Civil Rights Movement. Video footage and bibliographical research were used to reconstruct the conventional view of the spirit of the black population during the fifties and sixties. The importance of basic historical information, dates and events that have been used to frame the Movement and the names of organizations will also be discussed.

The second section will deal with the question: Was the Civil Rights Movement successful? The personal experiences of the artists, as well as studies and reports conducted by black organizations will be used to counteract the conventional historical view of this era. What will become clear is that despite legislative and judicial successes, the position of many black Americans has not improved.

The third section will then evaluate the advances made by black artists within the art market. This begins with a short overview of the pre-1950 stereotypes regarding African-American artistic creativity. Methods used by artists to overcome these racist stereotypes and their oppressive implications will then be evaluated. The Black community's art support systems and the shifts that occurred in artistic imagery as a result of the social changes are presented. This includes the cultural effects these images have had on the American population and the acceptance of black artists into the art market. Through this evaluation, racism and the suppressive mechanisms utilized by nationalist and mainstream arts institutions are uncovered.

It is important to note that the term "black" is used interchangeably with African-American, and Negro, but effort will be made to abide by the term in use at the applicable historical period.

Introduction

The history of the Civil Rights Movement has often been reported by individuals who were not connected with nor directly involved in the life and politics of the black community (Anna Kosof, 1989; Aldon Morris, 1984; Elsa Fine, 1973). As represented by white, upper/middle class historians, this externalist perspective is characterized by the absence of information regarding early African-American challenges to socially repressive laws as well as their social and political resistance to the erosion of their Civil Rights. For example, the Bailey vs. Alabama case of 1911,¹ United States vs. Reynolds (1914), Taylor vs. Georgia (1942), and Pollock vs. Williams (1944)² challenged the Southern peonage laws, which through debt contracting created and ensured the continued existence of a poor black labor force. Other examples of early resistance include Harmon vs. Tyler in 1927 that challenged legislation prohibiting blacks from living in white neighborhoods. The Detroit Race Riots of 1943 resulted as a consequence of the white violence that greeted those engaged in this socio- political resistance to the exclusion of blacks from the political process. Events such as these, which establish a long, continuous history of struggle for civil rights, are marginalized and unconnected to African-Americans' quest for their rights.

In Art History specifically, there has been little investigation into the Civil Rights Era. There is even less evaluation of art works created by black artists during this period, and of how the politics of the period influenced their art forms. This fact is evident in Elsa Fine's book, which claims to chronicle the African-American artists' search for identity, yet was written without interviewing any artists. The voices of African-American artists who were creating during the fifties and sixties were effectively muzzled.

Bibliographical research has resulted in the location of just three works pertaining to the Civil Rights Period. The first, an exhibition catalog entitled "Black Photographers Bear Witness" which contained only biographical information about the photographers in this exhibition, was organized by the Williams College Museum of Art in 1990. The second, Tradition and Conflict: Images of a Turbulent Decade, published by the Studio Museum of Harlem is a book accompaniment to the exhibition of the same name. The last is Afro-American Artists: New York and Boston 1970, an exhibition publication produced by the Museum of the National Center of Afro-American Artists.

In its discussion of the Civil Rights Era, Tradition and Conflict concentrates specifically on the icons and forms created by the black artist, their divergence from white mainstream depictions, and the kind of audiences they attracted. Although organized by a black organization, this exhibition, as well as Afro-American Artists: New York and Boston, and "Black Photographers Bear Witness" do not deeply examine the direct influences and effects the Civil Rights Movement had on the creative production of the African-American artist. Rather, artistic products were evaluated without much investigation into those events that shaped the creator's viewpoints.

This thesis differs, however, from the three previous works in that it presents the artists' critical reflection on the impact of the Civil Rights Movement on their identity as artists. It examines the creative impact of this epoch on their works, and the artistic forms that became predominant. Important historical information will emerge from discussions held with these leading members of the New York State black arts community. The views of Joe Overstreet, Charles Searles, Ed Wilson Jr., and the creative team of Houston Conwill, Estella Conwill Majozo, and Joseph DePace are of great significance because they provide a fascinating insight into the immediate experiences of Civil Rights Movement participants. By taking this stance, this thesis recovers the long erased voices of African-American artists, consequently providing a different interpretation of the art history of the period. By assuming this internal participant standpoint, one acquires a broader view of history that can be used to evaluate and supplement those aspects of the civil rights battle, which have been traditionally presented in historical texts. These aspects include the high profile actions such as the sit-ins and legal challenges.

The Civil Rights Movement - A Re-Reading of the Conventional Viewpoint

The Civil Rights Movement marks a period of heroics, bravery, and pride in the African-American experience. Historically, this era is believed to have begun with the Supreme Court decision on the Brown vs. Board of Education Topeka case, May 17, 1954,³ and ended with the March on Washington in 1963. This starting point is clearly problematic, for it ignores the long history of black resistance to the denial of their civil rights and liberties which predates the 1954 date. The spirit embodied by the Civil Rights Movement is already evident early in this century.

Historically and legally the suppression of African-Americans and their resistance to white oppression began with the end of slavery. The Emancipation Proclamation was supposed to dismantle the institution of American slave labor, making blacks free citizens of America. But even after President Lincoln had signed it into law in 1863, blacks were not free.⁴ After Reconstruction (the post-Civil War period) legislation was passed by all of the Southern states which allowed the arrest of blacks for vagrancy and breech of contract. This often occurred if the individual became indebted to his or her employer through a system of continuous one-year payment advances, and vacated the plantation prior to the repayment of an ultimately incomprehensible sum of money. Blacks responded to this legislation in their 1911 challenges to the peonage laws.

Despite social and political resistance, throughout the post- Reconstruction period of American history, blacks continued to be fated to a life of menial labor, poverty, and legal dehumanization. Social custom and legislation, including Jim Crow laws, were promulgated to promoted segregation. The Black Codes of Mississippi legalized the arrest of blacks for vagrancy. The sum total of these ensured an impoverished, indebted black working class and continued the system of Black oppression.⁵

Blacks attempting to escape Southern oppression during the early 1900s began a mass migration to New York, Chicago, and other Northern and Mid-Western cities. Prior to this great northern migration by Southern Blacks in 1900 (a date debated by historians)⁶ many African-Americans in the South were trapped as sharecroppers and were prevented from becoming educated. In no way were they considered equal. Blacks were expected to be humble and respectful to whites, and were compelled to accept the established social belief that they were inferior.⁷ By contrast, whites were expected to be indifferent and patronizing towards blacks, while always demanding respect for themselves.

The situation did not differ greatly in the North as many Southern Blacks soon discovered. Although they encountered a less violent form of racism, they were trapped in ghettoes, and were restricted to menial jobs. Many became disillusioned.

In 1910 the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People was founded in the aftermath of the Illinois Race Riots which had been provoked by white violence.⁸ This organization used publicity and legal action to regain and establish the rights of the oppressed black population. It is important to note that both the creation of this advocacy organization and the mass northern movement of African-Americans marked an attitudinal shift from passivity to activism in the black community. Instead of resignedly accepting their lot, and claiming helplessness, blacks consciously used whatever resources they had to improve their situation.

An example of this self-improvement is the Harlem Renaissance of the 1920s and thirties. A great number of blacks in the New York, Washington DC, Boston, and Philadelphia axis were able to gain an education, and become creative in both art and music. Known as the Harlem Renaissance, this creative movement that awakened the African-American artistic spirit occurred as a result of these vibrant successes in New York and Washington DC.

Politically, the Harlem Renaissance became associated with the New Negro Movement that was developed by Alain Locke. This crusade which recruited young, politically aware African-American artists, was associated with black pride.⁹ This affirmative attitude of black pride was a necessary predecessor to the Civil Rights Movement. The Harlem Renaissance, then, is significant because it highlights a positive shift in the attitude of the black community from self-awareness to self-assertion.

The Civil Rights Movement, and especially the organized social protest against segregation marks the arrival of the 1950s. This period is erroneously seen as beginning with the Supreme Court decision in the case of Brown vs. Board of Education Topeka, which outlawed segregation in the educational system.¹⁰ The founding of CORE (Congress of Racial Equality) in 1942 must also be used to re-evaluate the historically constructed starting point of the Civil Rights Movement. The creation in 1942 of an organization calling for racial equality indicates that civil rights activism had started more than a decade before the highly publicized date of 1954.

The importance of these events and dates has been ignored by the traditional historian. African-American assertion of their rights had been instigated by the refusal of state governments to enforce the ruling in local schools within the black community (Ibid. 389).

To halt this pattern of systemic discrimination, the NAACP continuously submitted cases to the Supreme Court as blacks attempted to take advantage of the decision rendered in 1954. Protests resulted, as people's legal rights were being illegally denied.

This self-empowerment within a racist and segregationist country did not lack consequences. Southern whites responded with fear, hatred, and extreme violence. During the 1950s alone there were over five hundred documented cases of lynching.¹¹ This fact is frightening given that the number does not include the numerous disappearances that were never solved. Yet, in spite of this, men and women were willing to risk everything for self-respect.

The case of Emmett Till, a fourteen-year-old killed in Money, Mississippi in 1955, is an example of individual sacrifice in exchange for respect and freedom. Wright was a boy from Chicago. He was brutally beaten beyond recognition and then shot for talking "fresh" to a white woman. His death would have been simply another statistic were it not for three factors: blacks' refusal to remain silent, the unification of the African-American community, and the bold testimony of a black man against the white men accused of the crime.

The two men accused of Wright's murder were arrested and placed on trial. Providing legal support, the NAACP, as well as the boy's mother, battled to keep this case in the news to highlight the brutal effects of racism in the South. Blacks from the North and throughout Mississippi provided support for the family. Amongst those present was Congressman Diggs of Michigan who attended the trial to bolster the family's spirits and demonstrate his support. Most significant of all was Mose's uncle, Morris Wright, who boldly testified in court, in the face of numerous death threats. Like other blacks he deeply believed that the time had come for change (Ibid.).

This militant spirit did not abate, but multiplied tenfold during the 1960s as the church and black youth organizations further mobilized for equal rights. The non- violent strategies that developed during the fifties had been fine-tuned and became the basic tactic for these freedom fighters. Organizations such as the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), and the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), were extremely active in promoting peaceful protest against injustices in the South and in the entire country. CORE in conjunction with SCLC, which was founded in 1957, and SNCC, which started in 1960, were significant organizations whose activities during the fifties and sixties resulted in many civil rights advancements.

Although positive and peaceful, actions such as student sit-ins, marches, and the Freedom Riders' protest against interstate segregation, which was organized by CORE in 1961, were continually confronted by state and civil violence. Greyhound buses used by CORE members were burned; people were beaten, jailed, and senselessly murdered. White sympathizers were equally attacked. Despite this level of violence, the Freedom Summer of 1964, and the SNCC voting drive, which attempted to increase the number black registered voters in the South continued. Eventually the Southern white violence led by the Ku Klux Klan angered the youths and the Civil Rights coalition splintered into non-violent and militant activist organizations.

Unlike the pacifist Christian based protest groups, militant organizations such as the Southern based SNCC, led by Stokley Carmichael centered on the idea of Black Power and self- defense. In the North, the Nation of Islam was founded by W. D. Fard, and later directed by Elijah Muhammad, its highly visible leader during the Civil Rights Period. Under the representation of Malcolm X, this organization called for a complete separation of blacks and whites and a return to an African centered ideology. SNCC, the Nation of Islam, the Black Panther Movement, and other militant groups were feared by the white establishment and marginalized in their historical accounts. Yet African-American artists in general and Charles Searles have credited these organizations, in particular, which specifically cites the Nation of Islam, as having had a huge impact on the success of the Civil Rights Movement.

The Civil Rights Movement had a great effect on American culture. As a result of the bravery of those involved, segregation was ruled unconstitutional by the Supreme Court and enforced by the Federal Government. Legislation such as the Voting Rights Act of 1965 was passed. More importantly, however the black community learned that they could control their future regardless of oppression and segregation, and that despite all attempts by racist white society, they were free.

The image of the Civil Rights Movement we are most often presented with by white historians includes a sense of selfless bravery, unity, and commitment by all Americans to a noble cause. An overwhelming sense of martyrdom is associated with the non- violent protest of Martin Luther King Jr. and his followers. In many respects, this picture is true. However, it is a somewhat romanticized image, altered by the selective nature of their reports. There were many equally important and necessary militant black organizations and leaders. There was unity, but there were also conflicts between the church and the Nation of Islam, between Martin Luther King and SNCC regarding political strategy and methodology. Although many black groups and organizations exhibited an incredible level of courage, many blacks were afraid to challenge the system.

A Critical Evaluation of the Movement: A Question of Equality

In providing their interpretation of the Civil Rights Movement the collaborative team of Conwill, Majozo, and DePace, and solo artists Overstreet, Searles, and Wilson were invited to examine the effects this era had on the artworks they produced. This is of major interest because it provides us with a new community perspective regarding the period, while highlighting the impact it has had on the individual. The central question they answered was: had the Movement been completely successful?

It is indisputable that the political activities of the Civil Rights Period resulted in legislation prohibiting segregation and blatant racism. Included in this ruling are acts of violence and obvious prohibitions on account of color. This is clearly a success. Yet, if one views the issue from a broader perspective of social and economic progress, in conjunction with the current position of the African-American community today, it is obvious that oppression continues.

As Martin Luther King noted, the contemporary mechanism used to suppress blacks is not intimidation and legislation, but economics. He asserted that, "many white Americans of good will have never connected bigotry with economic exploitation" (King Jr., 24). The reality of America is that the presence of many blacks in various ghettoes across the country since the Great Migration has been associated with economic segregation. As documented by Stewart Burns in Social Movements of the 1960s:

While economics remains a dominant means of oppression, violence and intimidation exists as is made evident by the murder of a black youth in Howard Beach, Brooklyn in 1986 and the Rodney King police brutality case of 1991. This entrapment of blacks in a cycle of poverty is complex and intentional. Educational opportunities, adequate housing, professional employment, and medical care are not easily accessible by the lower classes. Under-education continues to be a problem facing African-Americans in the nineties as in the sixties. In the past, this handicap had created, and in the nineties continues to maintain a level of inferior economic power within the black community. The result is racial polarization.

In order for the Civil Rights Movement to have been an unqualified success, the immediate implementation of quality educational programs for the urban masses was necessary. Conwill, Majozo, DePace team, Overstreet, Searles, and Wilson, who specifically associated this factor with white economic domination, highlighted lack of education. According to Ed Wilson, patronage of the arts eludes the black community because of its under-education and low financial status: blacks are "not in a position to certify" the creativity and originality of the African-American artist (Wilson). Black artists are consequently excluded from the art market and from shaping American aesthetics because virtually all art institutions are owned, directed, or funded by the white establishment.

In a certain sense, the successes of the Civil Rights Movement have had negative effects on the African-American community. During segregation, there was a very strong support group within the black society. Children were protected from racism, respect for elders was enforced, and there was a sense of unity. Wilson recalls, "segregation forced a kind of cohesiveness for survival and community relating" (Wilson). But, with the Civil Rights Movement and the end of segregation came the destruction of the family unit, unity, and the maintenance of poverty (Wilson). Successful blacks moved from their neighborhoods to the suburbs in search of the American Dream. However, many were dismayed with integration as they failed to discover the opportunities that were believed to be available with the end of legal racism.

It is in the ghettoes that the end of segregation took its greatest toll. Loss of community spirit, lack of education, and inadequate financial resources resulted in poor blacks being trapped in urban slums. Traditional black support systems, which included extended family and neighborhood cohesion, collapsed. Crime, alcohol, and individualism pervaded the once thriving Black community in cities such as Chicago.

In response to his apparent yearning for segregation in the face of this breakdown of the family and the black community in urban cities, Wilson commented,

This statement is significant for it recognizes, as did the Nation of Islam, that creating a distinct community within a larger society can be beneficial. Support systems including schools, businesses, and community centers, are needed to advance the position of members of this distinct group.

However, it must be stressed that there is a difference between segregation as practiced by whites, and living a segregated existence as advocated by the Nation of Islam and outlined by Wilson. There is no question that the imposition of separate living within the United States for the sake of oppression is negative. However, contemporary white America does live a segregated existence. Many financial and educational resources are unavailable to African Americans who cannot afford these services. This is how segregation continues. Using white society as an example, Malcolm X, and in this case Wilson, are highlighting the fact that separation does not have to necessarily connote oppression. Separation can have its advantages if used to better the distinct group. This, however was not the case of American institutionalized segregation.

The Church and the Civil Rights Movement - A New Interpretation

In spite of the contemporary disparity between Whites and Blacks, the Civil Rights Movement can still be considered an overall success. Legislative advancements towards equality have been attributed to church based, non-violent activism throughout the Civil Rights Period. The church had assumed an important position within the lives of many black Americans prior to the sixties. As a result of its importance in the African-American society, its prominence during the Civil Rights Period has been considered the major civil rights pivot by many historians. This point has been disputed. When questioned on the importance of the church in the Movement's success, Charles Searles and Ed Wilson Jr. provided a new outlook on the situation. The church, in both cases was seen as significant, but not the key factor in the Civil Rights Movement.

In Wilson's opinion, the presence of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. in the sixties proved to be the primary factor in transforming the role of the church. Prior to the Movement, blacks would attend services in order to pray for a better life after death. Pastors, church councils, and the congregation failed to challenge the racist social system until the appearance of King. As Wilson derisively outlined, the church was where many:

All the artists cited King's oratory style as a major stimulant in the Civil Rights Movement. They recall that his speeches instilled pride and a positive activist attitude in many blacks. At the same time, possibly as a result of internal guilt, many whites were also stirred to action. Wilson noted that King's "eloquence as a speaker shamed a lot of black preachers into participation." Only at his intervention did the church become a significant fundraiser, meeting place, and foundation for the Civil Rights Movement.

The NAACP, and the National Urban League, both primarily conservative groups, focussed on legal matters and education respectively. Their collaboration with activists including Martin Luther King Jr. and SNCC were critical to the success of the Movement. Wilson explains that, "it took all three, but the group[s] that [were] the most effective...[were] the activists [such as CORE, SNCC, and SCLC]" (Wilson). He noted that as racial barriers were destroyed by these protest groups, educational and legal organizations led members of black community through the newly opened doors into integration.

In contrast to Wilson, Searles believes that the success of the Movement lies in the Nation of Islam. He contends that the dichotomy created between the Christian and Islamic activists resulted in the overwhelming support of the Christian based movement. King, who called for equality and de-segregation, was better accepted than the Muslim position that preached separation and militancy.

In the earlier stages of the Muslim movement Searles states, whites were not allowed into the Mosque and therefore had no knowledge of what teachings occurred. Consequently the Nation of Islam initially met with no white hostility; "we were well dressed, highly respectful, and broke no laws. The hostility started...after they [whites] were able to infiltrate." Forced to take a stand, whites selected "one evil over the other...[and so] they flocked to Martin Luther King," whom they perceived as the lesser evil.

Searles' position is that the church and the NAACP received both black and white supports because of the separatist stance of Malcolm X and the Nation of Islam. People were also attracted to King because he was a Reverend and they saw his organization as representing the Christian ideals of the American Dream. Searles contends that many of the older members involved in the battle for civil rights joined church based organizations as a result of their acceptance of Christianity, and their perception of Islam as alien. The church legitimized their actions by providing the "religious aspect that they were accustomed to, that made it OK; it was under the church." According to Searles, "the church played a major role [in the Civil Rights Movement] because whites would not have accepted it under conditions other than Christianity."

Wilson and Searles' analyses are important since they identify the cultural mood and the mechanisms in place in the sixties that have not been frequently highlighted by historians. It is important to note that Wilson's and Searles' views regarding cultural institutions have not neatly overlapped with what we have been made to believe about the black church, working selflessly to end racism (Morris, 1984). This, once again, supports the belief that the externally located historian often does not fully comprehend the value of events which he or she then considers to be insignificant.

Charles Searles: And that is what I Find

Living within a tightly knit, relatively well off family in Philadelphia, Searles was unaware of racism as a child because his family insulated him from it. Looking back, he does recall noticing a change in his father's behavior when faced by a white man, but he did not associate this with their difference in skin color. He remembers not being "spoken to right", and instinctively reacting, but he did not understand the cause. His realization that these were various forms of racism came only on retrospect.

Searles was rarely faced with blatant racism. Although there were whites in his neighborhood, he had no contact with them. As a result of a large, successful family he primarily remained with his "own kind". This, he believes, was not unusual before the seventies as children were protected by their elders and were restricted to their immediate community. In fact, recognition of racism did not occur until his enrolled in the armed forces.

Unlike his previous situation, prejudice within the military could not be ignored. It was made evident to him by the earlier segregation of Blacks into the Tuskegee Airmen Company. The heroics of this all-Black company disproved the theory that African- Americans could not fight, and served as a source of pride for blacks during the 1940s. Nevertheless, separation of black and white military personnel continued throughout the fifties as intelligent blacks were denied promotions and chastised severely for minor incidents. Uneven punishment was common. For instance, if a black man went AWOL for a day, Searles reported he would be thrown in jail, while a white man would go unpunished.

After leaving the service in the late 1950s, Searles became aware of the Civil Rights Movement and Malcolm X. He started producing artwork as an independent artist at home in Philadelphia, and began looking into a professional career in the arts. He married, started a family, and was finally admitted to the Pennsylvania Academy to study fine arts. It was while he was there that he became an active member of the Nation of Islam.

Membership in the Nation of Islam in the 1960s resulted in a shift in consciousness and of artistic representation. Prior to his involvement, a majority of his creations focussed on the negative position of blacks within the American society. Violence, anger, and poverty were primary images within his art works. By the mid-to-late sixties, an interest in the solution rather than the cause for the African-American predicament developed as a greater sense of self arose out of his membership within this organization.

Unlike the Christian based movement of Martin Luther King Jr., the Nation of Islam did not emphasize integration; it did not want to be a part of white America. Muslims believed the answer to the plight of the black population lay in separation. These differences between Christian and Islamic ideology resulted in variations in civil rights tactics. King and the church emphasized peace, patience, and a better existence in heaven. Islam supported self-preservation, voluntary black separation, and life on earth. According to Searles, the philosophy stressed "who you were, where you came from, and where you were going. Muslims talked about health, cleanliness, respect for the woman, and pride in self." It was mandatory for Muslims to perfect themselves in order to create a functioning, separate black community within the United States. Education and self-pride were fundamental in making this philosophy a reality. Searles discovered he had to remove the shackles of oppression and shame to be free. As a Nation of Islam member, he learned that the construction of a new identity must occur by connecting with Africa.

Muslim theology, according to Searles, locates Africa as the point of origin for the black residents within this Country. Although they had forgotten Africa, they were told that the Continent and its culture belonged to African-Americans. They learned that the slave owner had purposely eradicated this connection, and in contemporary times, by the mainstream establishment that wanted to keep the black population subservient. Searles recalled that education in African culture, black history, and art provided a foothold, gradually freeing him spiritually from America's cultural oppression.

An example of this separation of the slave/oppressed identity lies in the use of the letter "X" by Searles and other members of the Nation of Islam. It is believed that the surname, which serves as an indicator of identity, originally belonged to the slavemaster. Muslims replaced their last names by this character, thus nullifying this ownership and establishing a sense of individuality. In his newfound identity, Charles Searles became Charles Twenty-Two X, because he was the twenty-second Charles in his mosque.

As a result of Searles' involvement with Islam, the idea of space became a significant element in his work. Central to this philosophy was the idea of separation and the right to individual ownership. Searles adopted this position and began incorporating the words "land" and "earth" into his paintings. He believes that "all black people need a piece of this earth no matter if they are integrated or not". This possession would allow people to provide for themselves, increasing their sense of inner dependence and individuality.

Because of his preoccupation with cultural politics, Searles' earlier works emphasized the plight of the African-American. His spiritual education under the Nation of Islam transformed his vantage point towards a solution. No longer did he focus on the negative, but he represented blacks in a positive, proud light. Stylistically, there was a shift towards the use of traditional African motifs, which can still be seen in his works such as Dancer Series 1975 (figure 1).

Searles was asked to comment on the nature of categories within black arts. Elsa Fine, who appears to have a negative and generalizing view regarding black creations, believes that there are three categories in African-American art. These are: Mainstream (artist who create and happen to be black); Blackstream (artist inspired by the Movement, and or Africa, but works in the accepted traditional style) and the Black nationalist who created a black art movement linked to separatist politics.¹² Searles dismissed Fine's categories on the ground that her generalization is shortsighted since artists' experiences cannot be ignored. He contends that artists cannot create works that are not influenced by occurrences faced during their lifetime. "All [of] your experiences make you what you are."

Using his life as an example to establish the complexity in the works of African-American artists, Searles' works have been deeply affected by his participation in the Nation of Islam during the sixties. Ideologies regarding his perception of the world are consciously incorporated into his creative endeavors. He embodies his life experiences, therefore emphasizing education, self-respect, and concentration on the solution in his art forms. These, Searles has come to believe, are the necessary factors for the improvement of the position of the African-American within a continued segregationist system.

Ed Wilson Jr.: Your Humanity is Killing Me

The identity and actions of Wilson Jr. during the Civil Rights Era were connected to protest and resistance. Military duty, international dominance by Eurocentric forces, and the battle against American racism were occurrences which directly effected Wilson's ideology and development as an artist. His experiences have had a direct impact on his works.

Unlike Searles, however Wilson believes that artist can create without having to express concerns developed throughout an artist's lifetime. However he, while agreeing with Fine, contends that those ignoring their experiences are avoiding the truth. He compares this escape from reality to the life of a drug addict.

This is clearly not the case with Wilson, who does not correspond with any of Fine's pre-described categories, or any of the artists interviewed.

Wilson provides an amazing view into the world of the Civil Rights Movement. Various personal and professional experiences have created a strong sense of self and motivation that is so implicit in his character. His service in the armed forces can be seen as the primary element in the development of this personality. It was within that environment that he directly experienced racism in all parts of the world, and that he framed his response to racial inequality.

During 1943 Wilson enlisted was drafted into the Air Force. He was denied the opportunity. He was assigned to an all black Aviation Squadron with white officers, which performed the servile duties on Airforce bases. Fortunately, for Wilson servicemen were required to take intelligence tests and due to the high scores he received, he was later placed in the records office of the 456th Aviation Squadron. This type of token reassignment was devised as a corrective response to the errors of racism. However, educated blacks who performed well on these intelligence tests and refused to accept mistreatment were punished for failing to live up to the stereotype of blacks. As an educated, assertive individual, Wilson refused to accept prejudice and ignorance, nor to support the racist white concept of the black male.

An incident occurred which ultimately ended with him being sent overseas while he was in California processing military records at a Port of Embarkation. Wilson and a co-worker were given leave by the port commanding officer for doing an excellent job. They were later arrested for being AWOL and jailed for two weeks in the company of murderers and black market dealers. When finally released, Wilson and his buddy were taken under guard to a warehouse, and later found themselves on the deck of a ship bound for China, Burma, and India. They were advised by the white commanding officer of the 456th Aviation Squadron that they could jump off of the ship after passing the three-mile United States territorial limit on the Pacific Ocean.

This racial debasement continued even in the China, Burma, and India theater of operation. Black soldiers were provided weapons without live ammunition, but were assigned to erect and clean the tents of the white officers and pilots in Burma. The mistreatment he endured made Wilson more aware of the injustices and inequality of racism carried abroad. Increasingly asserting his identity and refusing to be browbeaten, he continually challenged his white superior officers and other whites who disrespected him.

Wilson found inner peace and comfort by communicating his experiences to his friends and family. This too, however proved to be problematic because of his refusal to grovel and be silent. His mail was regularly intercepted, read, and retained by his officers who later disciplined him for complaining to his family and friends about the mistreatment he was receiving and observing in the military. In one case, he recalls being called by intelligence officers who ordered him to stop reporting on the maltreatment he was receiving. In order to outwit his tormentors he resorted to an alternative language to communicate with those at home, and to freely express how he felt. Wilson began writing in "hippenese"; a slang that the white officers could not understand, and were therefore obliged to send. He reports that he would have a friend at home translate his letters for his parents.

Military service also provided Wilson with a larger view of the world, and an understanding that prejudice and oppression was not limited to America. He witnessed racism in Colonial India and China, as the British and the American military suppressed the native populations, as well as Black American soldiers. In one instance, he remembers being at a protest rally in India, and even though he did not understand the language, he understood what the crowd was expressing. Wilson contends that the cry for freedom in that instance is a universal language that all oppressed people can comprehend.

During the 1950s, after attending the University of Iowa, Wilson became Chairman of the Art Department at North Carolina College. There he organized protests challenging segregation and legal racism. Enlisting the student body, he staged sit-ins and protests in various parts of Durham, North Carolina. He found the younger generation was more receptive to working for change while the older generation was unwilling to challenge the system. He recalled that:

In his creative work Wilson claims that jazz has played an integral part in both the process of creation and in his mind. He sees black jazz musician as evolving, relaying individual experiences and the history of a people. These artists have developed, modifying musical/melodic structure and rhythm in order to musically document various black social experiences. For example, "the migration from the South to the Northern cities [New York specifically] introduced some change in music" (Wilson). In contrast, he found that African-American visual artists have been limited by the art establishment, being forced to adopt traditional methods without adaptation. In terms of Wilson's work, the characteristic freedom, movement, and innovation of jazz became a central element.

Related to the adoption of Western artistic methods and forms is the idea of forgetting one's own history as a Black in America. Wilson argues that the African- American artist has integrated his or her form into mainstream art, using traditional European techniques, and concentrating on social content. Even with the creative flourishing during the Harlem Renaissance there is no sense of a black artistic history, only those of the dominant Eurocentric culture. He said that "the one thing that stands out...through their educational process is they [referring to African-Americans in general] are perhaps losing their sense of memory about themselves" (Wilson). According to Wilson, the same is said for the black artist who assimilates in order to be accepted. He believes visual artists must be like the jazz musician who builds his or her identity and African-American experiences into previously existing forms, thereby constructing a continuum.

The development of Wilson's work is a direct reflection of his experience. Unlike many Black Nationalist artists, he does not fall into the "let my people go" psychology. Thus his forms and imageries are not focussed on the negative socio-political situation of blacks. One of Wilson's earlier works, Minority Man No.1, 1954 (figure 2), which depicts a man in a subservient, pleading stance may at first glance be thought to fall into this category. This work, however, mocks the belief that blacks are to assume a servile role, rather than merely depicting a subservient black man.

This constructive criticism of negative attitudes is inherent in the diverse images created by Wilson. Again, in such works as The Board of Directors, 1969 (figure 3), he critiques the dominating and oppressive power structure observed in Harlem during the 1960s. This social commentary piece consists of ten bronze figures attached to a chrome plated box. In the words of Wilson, this work:

Other artistic representations include key Civil Rights figures such as Medgar Wiley Evers, 1925-1963. Civil Rights Leader Assassinated June 12, 1963, in Jackson Mississippi (fig.3), and Whitney M. Young Jr. The John F. Kennedy Memorial and Park, 1966-1969 located in downtown Binghamton, is an example of the many works done as commissions. Unlike other artists who portray the ills of society Wilson's forms are cryptic critiques or assertions about American life. He instead attempts to relay history, while expressing his concerns regarding the American society.

Joe Overstreet: I Will Be Free of Their Nonsense

The artistic productions of Joe Overstreet have been directly influenced by his life experiences. Travels to India and the Orient as a Merchant Marine introduced Overstreet to Eastern art forms providing a new, non-western perspective of art. The prejudice he encountered towards the beginning of his artistic career revealed the racist position implicit in the white art establishment. In response he co-founded the Kenkeleba Gallery with his wife Corrine Jennings in New York City. His highly self-expressive art works are personal responses to these various encounters.

Born in Conehatta, Mississippi, Overstreet does not recall being directly faced with racism as a young boy. Like Searles, the children within the Overstreet family were surrounded almost exclusively by blacks. Nurtured and protected from the pains of prejudice by adults within the immediate kin-group, Overstreet recalls:

His initial introduction to the ignorance and pain of white oppression stemmed from adult gossip. Stories retelling Southern white violence and the mistreatment of blacks throughout Mississippi were relayed among the elder members of the family. These depictions were overheard by the children, which formulated in each an individual conception of racism. Overstreet remembers "hearing all these stories as a child, about the things that they [whites] had done to other black people in other parts of Mississippi. So in [his] mind, these people were just awful."

Contact with white oppression and violence was limited by being contained in black communities. As a result of his father's occupation as a mason, employment opportunities forced Overstreet's family to move to Savannah Georgia, then New York City, followed by Washington D.C. In each case racism was not a factor in the children's lives. When they relocated to Portland, Oregon, however, Overstreet encountered the American system of segregation.

Before this time, Overstreet had never knowingly experienced public racism. He recalls noticing the behavior of his father when outside of the black community, but he specifically had never been directly restricted by the color of his skin. An attempt to go to an Oregon pool was his first encounter with American apartheid:

Exposure to racism continued with Overstreet's return from overseas as a Merchant Marine, and his realization that he wanted to be a painter. His first professional experience as an artist was a position at Walt Disney Studios in 1953. He was only employed a week, then was transferred to Disney World at Anaheim. He was told that this was a result of his lack of animation training. He believes, however, that he was moved not because of his technique, but because of his color. According to Overstreet: "he [Disney's brother; the man who hired him] probably would have given me a chance, but the people who were involved in working there...they didn't want anyone who was black anywhere near there" (Overstreet).

From his experiences at Disney Studios he began to realize the difficulty of his goal to become a painter. Racism was present not only in the animated film industry, but also in the fine arts world. Overstreet recalls meeting with Mark Rothko, Franz Kline, Jackson Pollock, and William DeKooning in New York City bars and realizing that the art world would never open to him, or any other black artist.

Many black artists experienced restriction and rejection during the fifties, sixties, and even today. In response many African-American artists turned to other members of the black arts community for support. Overstreet met with and talked with Jacob Lawrence, Romare Bearden, and Hale Woodruff about the position of blacks in the art market. Their reaction to the collective disenfranchisement was the formation of a style particular to the black experience. An art form:

The creation of a black aesthetic fostered an ideological goal within Overstreet. Taking his community as the center, he believed the development of an art form that the black community considered culturally significant was important. This art form was to take precedence over acceptance by the white establishment.

Conventionally, the conformity of African-American artists to the art market corresponds with white institutions' acceptance of artistic forms. Overstreet cites a recent exhibition held by the New Jersey State Museum that categorizes black artists. This exhibition placed artists within conflicting categories, pitting them against one another. He sees this positioning of African-American artists against each other as corresponding with black economic success within the arts. One category will be supported while the other is scrutinized. In Overstreet's view this will determine "who will get the money for their work. Who they want to allow to make all this money" (Overstreet). Permission is granted by idolizing that category or frame which fosters the white ideology at the time.

Overstreet has responded to restriction in art by producing pieces that express his viewpoints. Black culture and his position as an individual are relayed through his work. He has also reacted to racism within the arts by co-founding the Kenkeleba Gallery, located in New York City. Here he has exhibited over four thousand artists; eighty-five percent of whom are black. He believes, "what we offer to ourselves is the only thing that's worth something to us" (Overstreet).

During the 1960s, visits to friends attending Howard University led to Overstreet's involvement in the battle for civil rights. There he met Stokley Carmichael and captured the spirit of the Civil Rights Movement. At this time his art works reflected the social and political events of the Era. An example of this is The New Jemima, 1964, which depicts this stereotyped black American breakfast character with a machine gun.

This political refusal to accept the racist roles assigned by white society was common amongst black artist at this time. Overstreet remembers the emotions influencing what he now considers his young paintings:

This concern for black society carried over into his paintings and in the co- foundation of Kenkeleba gallery to fight for and promote African-American art and artists.

Overstreet supported the Civil Rights Movement through the contribution of his works to raise money through sales for CORE and other activist organizations. Unlike King, Overstreet knew that he could not hold back in the face of verbal or physical abuse. He would have fought back. Since civil rights organizations employing non-violent tactics were adamant about the use of peaceful strategies, those who did not have the temperament to be passive in the face of abuse were not sent to the front lines. Overstreet's strong personality and temper prevented him from participating in marches, sit-ins, and the like. He was too much of a danger to those participating as greater violence could easily erupt. He therefore participated by providing the economic resources needed by activist organizations.

The contemporary works of Joe Overstreet embody many of his experiences as a black male (figure 4). His latest exhibition, titled "Facing the Door of No Return" reflects his trip to Dakar, Africa in 1992. While there he went on a pilgrimage to Goree Island, a small landmass off the coast of Senegal. Here stands a small pink house with a door facing the Atlantic Ocean; the door of no return. The portal through which four million Africans passed on their way to slavery.

Overstreet's painting titled Goree, 1993 (figure 5) represents this house of passage. The house, signified by the artist's use of vibrant pink, embodies all of the artist's emotions experienced while standing in that structure looking through the doorway towards the West. His works represent his vision of resistance and survival within a racist, oppressive society.

Houston Conwill, Estella Conwill Majozo, Joseph DePace: And Then Revelation

Unlike Searles, Wilson, and Overstreet, the creative team of Houston Conwill Estella Conwill Majozo, and Joseph DePace are collaborative artists. The works produced by these artists are a conglomerate of ideas on education, spirituality and multiculturalism, incorporating sculpture, poetry, and architectural forms. Socially and artistically, Conwill, Majozo, and DePace represent the long-term effects of the Civil Rights Movement.

While Overstreet's, Searles', and Wilson's artistic creations were produced during, and immediately after the era in question, the evolution of their works followed their experiences and ideological developments which were formulated contemporaneously with the Civil Rights Movement. By contrast, the collaborative art team of the Conwill, Majozo, DePace team, did not begin to work together until 1986. Prior to that, all were independent artists. Still, the influences of the Civil Rights Movement can be seen in their works. Their inter-racial collaboration speaks to the integrationist spirit that King devised, and their emphasis on education and multiculturalism represents the goal of the Civil Rights Movement.

Conwill recalls being aware of the Civil Rights Movement and the problems of racism. He remembers going home to Louisville, Kentucky to find parts of his neighborhood burned down. He was greatly shaken by this.

He did not become an active figure in the Movement until his enrollment in the armed forces after high school, and the death of Martin Luther King Jr.

During this time, Conwill was stationed at Andrews Military base in Washington DC. The death of King resulted in an explosive demonstration of black anger. Civil unrest all across the Country illustrated this overwhelming sense of frustration and loss experienced by the African-American community. As a result of this violent display of emotion, military units, including Conwill's battalion, were dispatched on riot patrol. "They [superior officers] wanted us to go and control the people in the street[s], and we [black military personnel] refused to go. A lot of us were too broken up by it" (Houston Conwill).

After leaving the service, Conwill formally made attempts to become active in the Movement. He chose to attend Howard University because of the school's activist position and strong art department.

As with Searles, Conwill wanted to be a part of the solution. He talked about the sense of confusion he felt on the part of young people who were attempting to remedy the illness of racism.

As an art student in an activist setting, acceptance of political imagery in his quest for artistic freedom was an obstacle to be faced. African-American artists had to decide whether to accept the traditional Western, pacifist position or that of the new black radical. If one's work was too close to the status quo, he or she was considered an Uncle Tom. At the same time, "we didn't want to be pawns to the political science students" who demanded political posters and the like. (Houston Conwill).

In order to succeed in both representing the Civil Rights Era while remaining independent, black art students at Howard created works "full of the spirit of the time and full of the rage that we could muster at the time" (Houston Conwill). This took the form of abstract art. This he said is illustrated by the works of Sam Gilliam, whose abstract works gained international prominence at this time, and reflected the political momentum of the period while expressing his artistic freedom. Gilliam's work "had a great deal to do with the language of the time" (Houston Conwill).

As a black female in the South, Conwill Majozo had acquired a different perspective on prejudice than any other artist involved, including her brother, Houston. She was judged both by the color of her skin and her sex. One of the last to leave home, she recalls the presence of both racism and sexism in her youth. Although protected throughout childhood, she came face to face with the ugliness of prejudice upon entering high school.

Majozo was one of possibly ten black students attending gifted girls' academy in an all white district of Kentucky. Too young to participate directly in the Civil Rights Movement she recalls her psychological participation. At this time, Martin Luther King, and his brother Alfred King, targeted the area of Kentucky containing her school for the Open Housing marches, which rallied against discrimination in the real estate market. This nearby protest allowed her to individualize the spirit of the Civil Rights Period. Discussions with her white school friends regarding the events in the area were a unique method of participation. By peacefully vocalizing and rationalizing the needs of the black community, the message carried by the Civil Rights Movement was being relayed to those who would soon be in a position to change society.

Her mother has influenced Majozo's views regarding the Civil Rights Period. A supportive and wise woman, she made her children aware of their mission and the need to transform society. This attitude is a significant aspect of these artists' works, as the metamorphosis of the audience through the journey embarked by the song lines and points along the cosmogram used in their works are traversed.

Like Majozo, DePace, a white boy in the Bronx, was too young to participate in the conventional era of the Civil Rights Movement. Despite this, he too was affected by the times. His introduction to the events in the South was a result of the reporting in the press. This presentation of injustice directly assisted in the formulation of his current position on civil rights, and human rights overall. He, however did become active in the Anti-War Movement, which he sees as a strongly related event.

The area in which he lived during his developmental years had a profound effect on his mindset. Growing up in a mixed, working class neighborhood in the Bronx, DePace was not familiar with the Southern tactics of violence and blatant racism. Rather, he had many black friends and attended an integrated school. "I account myself as being really lucky because of that" (DePace).

When faced with photographs and television news coverage depicting what was happening in the South as a result of the struggle for freedom, DePace remembers being appalled. The images flashed on the screen by the media are visions that he will never forget.

As previously mentioned, DePace became involved in the Anti-War Movement as a result of the ideas formed during this earlier period. Activists associated with civil rights were in evidence at rallies protesting the War. Consequently, DePace was exposed to many of their ideas.

As a result of their experiences, the works created by Conwill, Majozo, and DePace are public works that address these ideas of human and civil rights. As with Searles, they are interested in providing positive images for the entire community to observe and comprehend. These artists however have assumed a position of multiculturalism. They are interested in "creating a place where humankind can meet. Creating a place where everybody feels welcome; it's both specific and general"(Houston Conwill).

The art works produced are a conglomerate of imagery, verbal expression including words in other languages, photographs or figurative representations, and maps. Dance, such as hopscotch, cakewalk, and other universal forms are also important. These common features provide the necessary cultural unifiers making their efforts toward multiculturalism possible.

The New Cakewalk, 1989 is an example of this (figure 6). During the creation of this piece, Majozo visited the five cities cited as major points along this metaphorical journey. She collected oral histories, performed libation ceremonies, and composed letters to her brother documenting her trip. These writings were then bound and incorporated into the work. A crystal table was placed in front of the completed piece which traversed the life of Martin Luther King and resurrected other civil rights figures through the presentation of their words.

International music, and in many cases the Blues plays an integral part in these works. The twelve bars of the traditional blues song provide structure within their pieces. The song line, which also corresponds with the musical elements of the works are also important as it "allows people to enter, and go on this journey of transformation inspired and transformed by the words of the song line, by the music of the song line" (Houston Conwill).

Key elements in virtually all of the pieces created are water and the crossroad symbol that metaphysically symbolizes a place where the audience meets and is baptized. The Kikongo Cosmogram is also an important feature. This diagrams the four moments of the sun, spiraling counterclockwise, and coming to an end in the center. As one journeys along the Cosmogram, significant moments in one's progression of life are highlighted. The central point correlates with the most important location; the place at which the artists hope a spiritual/theological rebirth will occur in the minds of the audience after viewing the piece. For example, in The New Merengue, The Brooklyn Museum is the central most point. This is where the work had been exhibited in 1992 (figure 7).

For Conwill, Majozo, and DePace, the Civil Rights Movement was a multi- cultural event. It did not only address blacks, but the entire American population, and the World. It was a source of inspiration for all people operating within an oppressive society. As a result, these artists continue to produce imagery deeply rooted in the black struggle for equality and justice.

Conclusion: The Movement and the African American Artist: What Have We Overcome?

The conventional written history of the African-American experience during the Civil Rights Movement does not provide an adequate view into those events contributing to the development of this Era. Framed by the Brown vs. Board of Education case of 1953 and the March on Washington, 1963, this constructed and constricted time line fails to address earlier key indicators of change within the black community. It ignores the 1911 challenge of the peonage laws; a date that rightly signifies the inception of the activist's role in civil rights. In a highly relevant way the Harlem Renaissance of the twenties and thirties injected a psychological boost into the black consciousness. The culmination of black pride early in the twentieth century fortified the creative spirit of African-Americans, and became an important formative force in their quest for civil rights.

In re-evaluating the successes of the Civil Rights Movement, it is clear through interviews, historical texts, and reports on the position of the black artist in the art market, that racism continues. The black artist remains marginalized as many museums and other arts institutions continue to ignore and deny these artists the attention they deserve. This unacceptance disguises what art historians and curators cite as inadequacies in technique, style, and/or subject matter on the part of the artist.

The virtual exclusion of the black artist from exhibitions within many arts institutions has been well documented. Howardena Pindell conducted a seven-year statistical report which revealed that thirty-nine galleries within New York City represent only white artists. Similar studies have also been conducted by Patricia Failing,¹⁴ and by Maurice Berger. In "Black Artists Today - A Case of Exclusion", (Failing, 1989) and "Issues and Commentary I: Are Art Museums Racist", (Berger, 1990)¹⁵ prejudice within the American art market is discussed. Such documents support claims that racism is an inhibiting factor on the successes of the black artist.

Acceptance of African-American artists in the art market is often directly linked to subject matter. During the 1960s, black artists challenged contemporary social practices and cultural norms. Images of pain, hatred, disbelief, and injustices as seen in Charles White's Wanted Poster No.6. 1969 were common depictions. Artists such as Hughie Lee-Smith in The Aftermath 1968, turned to the community for inspiration, illustrating what was perceived as daily life.

After the Movement supposedly came to an end in 1963, this style of representation continued, as in the works of such artists as David Hammons, who represents the socio-political position of blacks in his 1970 work Injustice Case, and Adrian Piper's Pretend #3, completed in 1990. This concentration on the negative aspects of the African-American experience fosters a greater acceptance in the art market. Many of those artists who retained a position within the art world after the sixties produced works, which focus on the plight of the black community.¹⁶ Benny Andrews, No More Games 1970 is an example. It is interesting that positive imagery is not greatly supported.

This continuous presentation of negative aspects of black existence assists in the perpetuation of oppression and racism. By supporting the artist who depicts the negative, the legitimacy of the African-American position within America can be enforced. Lizzetta LeFalle-Collins, Visual Arts Coordinator of the California Afro-American Museum in Los Angeles, states that these political depictions are what both black and white communities believe African-American art should be.¹⁷ As a result of repeated presentation of negative imagery, she believes society will accept them as unalterable truths instead of as an illness that can be cured.

Like LeFalle-Collins, the collective team of Conwill, Majozo, and DePace, Overstreet, Wilson, and Searles find a number of black contemporary artistic imagery problematic. This mode of representation is seen as suggesting the inevitability of the black position within American society. If a people are bombarded by negative images, it will not be disputed. Many members of the society will accept what they see as true. Charles Searles began to understand this, and as a result, his work no longer addresses the problem, but the solution.

It has been made evident that the Civil Right Movement has had a profound effect on the individual lives of those participating artists. Although living at the same time and witnessing similar events no one person was affected in he same manner. Charles Searles' participation under the Nation of Islam stimulated in him a sense of individuality, an acceptance of the theology of individual space, and an acceptance of African motifs. This mental metamorphosis is reflected in his positive works which emphasize solution.

The development of Ed Wilson Jr.'s artistic style and personal beliefs stems from his service in the Army. His experience with racism within the military strengthened his sense of individuality and determination to fight against the American system of segregation. As a result, jazz, which for Wilson represents freedom and a comprehension of the black experience, is a major influence in his works and a component of his spirit.

Travels to the Orient and early experiences with racism within the arts directly resulted in Joe Overstreet's formulation of an art form that the African-American community would consider culturally significant. These works express his views and experiences as a black man functioning in America. Acceptance by the white arts establishment was no longer important. Overstreet had realized that the art world would never completely open itself to the black artist. He instead found support amongst fellow artists including Romare Bearden, Hale Woodruff, and Jacob Lawrence. He later co-founded the Kenkeleba Gallery which supports and exhibits the works of African-American artists.

Finally, the combined efforts of Houston Conwill, Estella Conwill Majozo, and Joseph DePace represent the continuation of the spirit implicit in the Civil Rights Movement. Although too young to have directly participated in the protests of the time, each member of this team individualized their concept of racism and the emotions of the period. Representing the "second wave" of the Civil Rights Movement, Conwill, Majozo, and DePace create in order to take their audience on a journey towards metamorphosis and the creation of a multi-cultural society.

Although individually internalizing and formulating theories as a result of personal experiences Conwill, Majozo, DePace, Overstreet, Searles, and Wilson have come to similar conclusions. Education, respect, pride, and understanding are necessary within American society if change is to occur. Their works address the positive, the spiritual, and the heroic for all believe that negative imagery poisons the mind and supports the oppressor.

Bibliography

Articles:

Benkley, Barbara. "African Awareness Motivates Artist Charles Searles" Reading Eagle February 16, 1986: B24

Berger, Maurice. "Issues and Commentary I: Are Art Museums Racist?" Art in America vol. 78 (September 1990): 68-75

Berger, Maurice. "Issues and Commentary II Speaking Out: Some Distance to Go" Art in America vol.78 (September 1990): 78-85

Conwill, Houston "Artist Statement" The New Merengue: Show Poster (New York, Brooklyn Museum, 1992).

Failing, Patricia. "Black Artists Today A Case of Exclusion" ARTnews vol. 88, (March 1989): 124-131

Gaither, Edmund Barry. "Heritage Reclaimed: An Historical Perspective and Chronology" Black Art Ancestral Legacy: The African Impulse in African American Art (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1989), 17-34

"Journey to Understanding" Constructing the American Past: A Source Book of a People's History (New York: Harper Collins Publisher, 1991), 429-433

"Mississippi: Allen's Army" Constructing the American Past: A Source Book of a People's History (New York: Harper Collins Publisher, 1991), 415-416

Moody, Anne. "Coming of Age in Mississippi" Constructing the American Past: A Source Book of a People's History (New York: Harper Collins Publisher, 1991), 402-405

SNCC. "SNCC Pamphlet on Voting Rights" Constructing the American Past: A Source Book of a People's History (New York: Harper Collins Publisher, 1991), 406-409

Sutherland, Elizabeth. "Summer of Discontent" Constructing the American Past: A Source Book of a People's History (New York: Harper Collins Publisher, 1991), 434-436

Temko, Allan "After Three Decades, Yerba Buena Center is a Winner" San Francisco Chronicle October 12, 1993: A1, A15

Books:

Bearden, Romare and Henderson, Harry. . History of African American Artists from 1792 to the Present (New York: Pantheon Books, 1993).

Burns, Stewart. Social Movements of the 1960s: Searching for Democracy (Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1990).

Driskell, David C. Two Centuries of Black American Art (New York: LA County Museum of Art/Alfred A. Khoph, 1976).

Fine, Elsa Hong. The Afro American Artist: A Search for Identity (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Wilson, Inc., 1973).

Gorn, Elliot J. Constructing the American Past: A Source Book of . People's History (New York: Harper Collins Publisher, 1991).

Holmes, Oakley N. The Complete Annotated Resource Guide to Black American Art (New York: 1978).

Kosof, Anna. The Civil Rights Movement and Its Legacy (New York: Franklin Watts, 1989).

Lowery, Charles and Marszalek, John F. Encyclopedia of African- American Civil Rights from Emancipation to the Present (New York: Greenwood Press, 1992).

Morris, Aldon. The Origins of the Civil Rights Movement: Black Communities Organizing For Change (New York: The Free Press, 1984).

Museum of the National Center of Afro-American Artists. Afro-American Artists: New York and Boston (Boston: Museum of the National Center of Afro-American Artists, 1970).

Video:

"Ain't Scared of Your Jails" Eye on the Prize: America's Civil Rights Years Boston: Blackside Inc, 1986

"Awakenings: 1954-56" Eye on the Prize: America's Civil RightsYears Boston: Blackside Inc, 1986

"Bridge to Freedom: 1965" Eye on the Prize: America's Civil Rights Years Boston: Blackside Inc, 1986

"Fighting Back: 1957-62" Eye on the Prize: America's Civil Rights Years Boston: Blackside Inc, 1986

"Mississippi: Is This America?: 1962-64" Eye on the Prize: America's Civil Rights Years Boston: Blackside Inc, 1986

"No Easy Walk: 1962-66" Eye on the Prize: America's Civil Rights Years Boston: Blackside Inc, 1986


	Charles Lowery and John Marszalek, Encyclopedia of African American Civil Rights From Emancipation to the Present (New York: Greenwood Press, 1992), 34.


	Ibid. 430.


	Anna Kosof, The Civil Rights Movement and Its Legacy (New York: Franklin Watts, 1989), 14.


	Martin Luther King Jr., Why We Can't Wait (New York: Penguin Books, 1963), 25.


	"Awakenings: 1954-56", Eyes on the Prize: America's Civil Rights Years (Boston: Blackside, Inc, 1986).


	Aldon Morris, The Origins of the Civil Rights Movement: Black Communities Organizing for Change (New York: The Free Press, 1984), 5.


	Morris, 2-3.


	Lowery & Marszalek, 410.


	David C. Driskell, Two Centuries of Black American Art (New York: LA County Museum of Art/Alfred A. Knoph, 1976), 59.


	Elliot J. Gorn, Constructing the American Past: A Source Book of a People's History (New York, Harper Collins Publisher, 1991), 398.


	"Awakenings: 1954-56", Eyes on the Prize: America's Civil Rights Years (Boston: Blackside, Inc, 1986).


	Fine, 194.


	Ed Wilson Jr. letter regarding inquiry on The Board of Directors.


	Patricia Failing. "Black Artists Today A Case of Exclusion" ARTnews vol. 88 (March 1989): 129.


	Maurice Berger. "Issues and Commentary I: Are Art Museum Racist?" Art In America vol. 78 (September 1990): 68-75.


	Ibid.


	Failing, 127.

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figure 4 - Sound in Sight, 1991

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Ijele: Art eJournal of the African World (2000)

ISSN: 1525-447X

CIVIL RIGHTS AND THE AFRICAN AMERICAN ARTIST:
HAVE WE OVERCOME?